HISTORIAS Manuel Espejo
The Opium Wars
Since the 18th century, the British East India Company had embarked on an ambitious venture within its Indian Bengal territories: the cultivation of opium. This crop was intended for illicit export to China, where opium held immense allure. A longstanding part of Chinese culture, opium, when consumed in moderation, posed little harm. However, rampant opium use had spiraled into widespread addiction, compelling successive Chinese emperors to impose restrictions on its consumption. This, however, conflicted directly with the interests of Western smugglers, predominantly the British.
By 1820, the situation had reached an untenable zenith. The opium trade had plunged Chinese society into turmoil. In 1839, the Chinese government issued an open plea to Queen Victoria, urging an end to the opium trade. Later that same year, they incinerated vast stockpiles of opium held by British merchants in Canton (now Guangzhou). This action, combined with other provocations cited by the British government, prompted the United Kingdom to dispatch a fleet, ostensibly to restore order and secure British interests under the banner of Pax Britannica.
The Opium War ignited a fierce debate in its era. Supporters framed it as a matter of British national honour, disavowing any connection to opium. They contended that the United Kingdom was safeguarding Chinese citizens from alleged atrocities committed by their own authorities.
Nonetheless, the opium link was unmistakable, and the term "Opium War" emerged from the press of the time. The conflict sparked intense discussions both in the British Parliament and among the populace. Many questioned the wisdom of initiating a war against a nation that had not directly threatened British interests, all to protect the profits of drug traffickers.
In 1840, the British government escalated the conflict, sending troops to seek reparations for the financial losses incurred by British smugglers and to secure future trade interests. The military encounter was decidedly in favour of the British, owing to their technological superiority.
The Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) in 1842 marked the conclusion of the war and set the stage for a series of unequal treaties between China and Western powers. Under this treaty, China ceded Hong Kong to the United Kingdom in perpetuity, established favourable trading conditions for British interests, and imposed economic compensation for Great Britain. Subsequently, France secured similar privileges in treaties of 1843 and 1844.
Regrettably, the illegal opium trade persisted beyond the first Opium War, spawning further incidents. In 1856, the Chinese government seized the British ship Arrow, detaining its crew. This incident triggered the Second Opium War, which embroiled the United Kingdom and France (the latter seeking a pretext to join the conflict) against China, concluding in 1860. The aftermath mirrored that of the first war: China was compelled to pay reparations to the victorious Western powers, more Chinese ports opened to European trade, the opium trade was legalized, and additional privileges were granted to the victors.
During this period of warfare, Chinese society grappled with persistent internal tension. The traditional Chinese imperial system crumbled under the duress of European powers and internal opposition. Republican forces, which sought to supplant the traditional imperial government, gained strength during these years. Ultimately, these events in the 20th century would culminate in civil wars that spelled the end of imperial China, paving the way for a republican China.
These wars serve as a stark reminder that the interests championed by states are not always just, and technological superiority can explain the ascendance of some nations at the expense of others' downfall.